Conceptual relations between loneliness and culture

Purpose of review To clarify ways in which loneliness and culture are connected conceptually. Recent findings Loneliness may be distinguished from being alone or social isolation by a common property of loneliness across cultures - that is, an undesired absence of reciprocal empathic understanding. Cultural meanings shape the experience of loneliness in that they create expectations of the nature and the extent of closeness in relationships as well as social connectedness. Conversely, the extent and nature of loneliness in a culture may be described as a property of that very culture, allowing one to speak of 'a culture of loneliness'. Accordingly, a culture of loneliness is found in both individualist and communal cultures, but of different kinds. A third conceptual relation may be described as a cultural loneliness, whereby someone is lonely while being in a foreign culture that leaves one feeling not understood and not able to reciprocate understanding about cultural meanings. Summary Loneliness shares common features across cultures, yet culture shapes it and is shaped by it.