Consistent scaling of inbreeding depression in space and time in a house sparrow metapopulation

Inbreeding may increase the extinction risk of small populations. Yet, studies using modern genomic tools to investigate inbreeding depression in nature have been limited to single populations, and little is known about the dynamics of inbreeding depression in subdivided populations over time. Natural populations often experience different environmental conditions and differ in de- mographic history and genetic composition, characteristics that can affect the severity of inbreeding depression. We utilized extensive long-term data on more than 3,100 individuals from eight islands in an insular house sparrow metapopulation to ex- amine the generality of inbreeding effects. Using genomic estimates of realized inbreeding, we discovered that inbred individuals had lower survival probabilities and produced fewer recruiting offspring than noninbred individuals. Inbreeding depression, measured as the decline in fitness -related traits per unit inbreeding, did not vary appreciably among populations or with time. As a consequence, populations with more resident inbreeding (due to their demo- graphic history) paid a higher total fitness cost, evidenced by a larger variance in fitness explained by inbreeding within these populations. Our results are in contrast to the idea that effects of inbreeding generally depend on ecological factors and genetic differences among populations, and expand the understanding of inbreeding depression in natural subdivided populations.