Flashbulb and event memory of September 11, 2001: Consistency, confidence and age effects

We used the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 to investigate if the formation, confidence, and nature of flashbulb memories were dependent on age. In addition, we compared the consistency over time of flashbulb memories with event memory, i.e., widely publicized factual details of the event, in a group of young respondents. College students (n = 34, M age 24.8 yr.) were questioned 2 wk. after the attack and again 2 mo. later. At the later time, also a group of healthy elderly respondents (n = 20, M age 70.5 yr.) was asked the same questions. Performance of young and old participants did not differ. Flashbulb memories were found without exception for both time periods and in both age groups. These memories had high confidence ratings and were described as very vivid. The original event was judged to have been accompanied by high emotion and rehearsal. In the college group, event memory, and to a smaller extent also flashbulb memory, decreased in accuracy already over the 2 mo. We conclude that flashbulb memories are a special case of normal episodic memory for emotional events. The creation of flashbulb memories, however, requires a special scenario of emotional arousal and rehearsal.