Cultural ecosystem services as complex outcomes of people-nature interactions in protected areas

Cultural ecosystem services (CES) provide a useful frame for exploring the benefits that people derive from visiting protected areas. The role that management authorities play in facilitating the delivery of CES has been identified as a particular research gap. We used group discussions with staff from three contrasting national parks in South Africa to explore how participation in visitor activities may translate into CES. Based on 21 selected activities, we found some complementarity across the three parks and that each activity could give rise to multiple CES. Additionally, CES delivery is influenced by a plethora of enablers, threats/constraints, opportunities, and trade-offs, many of which were park-specific and dynamic over time. Although the operating environment which enables CES differed significantly between fenced and open access parks, some enablers, trade-offs and tensions were generic across all three parks. A common tension related to the perception that delivery of CES was secondary to achieving biodiversity conservation, whilst a trade-off existed between the need to increase revenue and tourist numbers and providing quality and meaningful nature experiences. An alternative to the linear cascades model of ecosystem service delivery is suggested to better describe the complex interactions involved in CES delivery.