High-resolution studies of double-layered ejecta craters: Morphology, inherent structure, and a phenomenological formation model

The ejecta blankets of impact craters in volatile-rich environments often possess characteristic layered ejecta morphologies. The so-called double-layered ejecta (DLE) craters are characterized by two ejecta layers with distinct morphologies. The analysis of high-resolution image data, especially HiRISE and CTX, provides new insights into the formation of DLE craters. A new phenomenological excavation and ejecta emplacement model for DLE craters is proposed based on a detailed case study of the Martian crater Steinheima well-preserved DLE craterand studies of other DLE craters. The observations show that the outer ejecta layer is emplaced as medial and distal ejecta that propagate outwards in a debris avalanche or (if saturated with water) a debris flow mode after landing, overrunning previously formed secondary craters. In contrast, the inner ejecta layer is formed by a translational slide of the proximal ejecta deposits during the emplacement stage that overrun and superimpose parts of the outer ejecta layer. Based on our model, DLE craters on Mars are the result of an impact event into a rock/ice mixture that produces large amounts of shock-induced vaporization and melting of ground ice, leading to high ejection angles, proximal landing positions, and an ejecta curtain with relatively wet (in terms of water in liquid form) composition in the distal part versus dryer composition in the proximal part. As a consequence, basal melting of ice components in the ejecta at the transient crater rim, which is induced by frictional heating and the enhanced pressure at depth, initiates an outwards directed collapse of crater rim material in a translational slide mode. Our results indicate that similar processes may also be applicable for other planetary bodies with volatile-rich environments, such as Ganymede, Europa, and the Earth.