Brief History of Intermolecular and lntersurface Forces in Complex Fluid Systems

We review the developments of ideas, concepts, and theories of intermolecular and intersurface forces and how these were influenced (or ignored) by observations of nature and, later, systematic experimentation. The emphasis of this review is on the way things gradually changed: experimentation replaced rhetoric, measurement and quantification replaced hand waving, energy replaced force in calculations, discrete atoms replaced the (continuum) aether, thermodynamics replaced mechanistic models, randomness and probability replaced certainty, and delicate experiments on the subnanoscale revealed fascinating self-assembling structures and complex behavior of even the simplest systems. We conclude by discussing today's unresolved challenges: how complex "dynamic" multicomponent-especially living biological-systems that receive a continuous supply of energy can be far from equilibrium and not even in any steady state. Such systems, never static but evolving in both space and time, are still far from being understood both experimentally and theoretically.