Tunneling in Lesser Himalaya, Jammu and Kashmir, India with Special Emphasis on Tectonic Melange

Himalayan fold belt has full of geological surprises, 'melange' is one of them which create difficulties during tunneling. Such melange completely went unnoticed during surface mapping and geotechnical investigation preceding the construction of the Udhampur railway tunnel (URT). During the construction, the melange zone has encountered across the tunnel, which occurs along the Tanhal thrust (equivalent to MBT) that separates the Murree Group and the Shiwalik Group. The melange was characterized by a chaotic, heterogeneous geological mixture of stronger blocks (scale independence) and weaker sheared fine-grained matrix, often termed as "block-in-matrix rocks" or bimrocks, which enforced mixed face tunneling. The heterogeneity in a tectonic melange led to stress concentrations in the rock blocks, and there were relatively high deformations within the matrix also. Release of stress from the blocks due to excavation, with unfavorable joint and thrust orientations enforced brittle failure of the blocks (face and crown collapses) while matrix deformation (time dependent) caused convergence of primary support later. Additionally, the clay minerals with high swelling potential within the matrix swelled and created pressure on the primary support. Due to the geomechanical heterogeneity in melange, homogenizing the rock-mass by the commonly used quantitative systems might have lead to an inappropriate design and construction. The adopted New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) proved to be an useful tool for tunneling.