Distribution of major elements and trace metals as indicators of technosolisation of urban and suburban soils

Can geochemical characteristics indicate the human impact on soil formation (technosolisation) for urban and suburban soils? This question is assessed for the city of Marrakech located in one of the main agricultural areas of Morocco and characterized by a very rapid rate of expansion. The aim of this work is to assess geochemical properties of surface horizons of urban and suburban soils and to compare them with land use types. Fifty-eight surface soil samples were collected in different sectors of the city with different land use histories. As land use can be defined as the human use of land, these sampling sites were selected according to the current human activity (e.g., residential districts, agriculture, market-gardening, traditional, or industrial activities) and according to the superposition of the land use over time. All samples were air-dried, disaggregated, homogenized, and then sieved through a 2-mm mesh. Major elements and trace metals were measured in the soil using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. For technical limits, Cd was measured using atomic adsorption spectrometry. Urban and suburban soils of Marrakech present generally similar geochemical compositions for many elements. Siliceous (SiO2) compounds related to the parent material are dominant in these soils. However, the significant concentrations of P2O5 and CaO, measured in some of the urban soils studied, can be attributed to anthropogenic inputs of phosphorus (P) and technic materials, mainly building materials composed of cement and gypsum (plaster). Soils collected from agricultural areas irrigated with urban wastewater and soils developed on rubbish dumps are the most contaminated by metals (e.g., Cu, Zn, and Pb). Therefore, the distribution of major and trace elements in soils underlines the considerable impact of urban land uses. Human activities determine the type of land use, impact the urban environment, and cause a wide spatial diversity of soil quality. The urban and suburban soils of Marrakech contain similar major element distributions except for strongly anthropised soils (soils developed on rubbish dumps and agricultural soils irrigated with urban wastewater). Unlike major elements, trace elements present systematically significantly higher concentrations in urban soils than those measured in control soils. In these conditions, the highest concentrations exceed international clean-up standards and are correlated with land use type. Phosphorus, Ca, and several heavy metals are proposed as indicators of human impacts on soil characteristics in urban and suburban environments.