The effects of surface oxidation and fluorination of boron-doped diamond anodes on perchlorate formation and organic compound oxidation

This research investigated the effects of surface functional groups on both rates of organic compound oxidation (phenol, p-nitrophenol, benzoquinone, and oxalic acid) and perchlorate (ClO4-) formation at boron-doped diamond (BDD) film anodes at 20 degrees C. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements determined that various oxygenated functional groups (e.g., C-OH, C=O, COOH) were incorporated on the BDD surface by applying an anodic ageing process, and fluorine functional groups (e.g., C-F, were incorporated by electrochemical oxidation of aqueous perfluorooctanoic acid solutions. Batch oxidation experiments revealed that ClO4- formation via the oxidation of ClO3- was highly variable during anodic ageing, which was attributed to changes in oxygenated functional groups, while organic compound oxidation rates were not significantly affected. The fluorinated electrode showed a lower ClO4- formation rate (19 +/- 4 mu moles m(-2) min(-1)) compared to the oxygenated electrode (436 +/- 26 mu moles m(-2) min(-1)) indicating the fluorinated surface limits ClO4- production. Measurement of the electrode response to the Fe(CN)(6)(3-/4-) redox couple using cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy indicated that lower ClO4- formation on the fluorinated electrode was likely a result of dipole-dipole interactions between the negatively charged F atoms and ClO3- and steric hindrance caused by the perfluorocarbon chains. This effect along with the hydrophobicity of the fluorinated electrode resulted in significantly lower ClO4- formation (96% decrease) while slightly enhancing measured oxidation rates of hydrophobic organic compounds. The use of benzoquinone as OH center dot probe confirmed that the fluorination process did not inhibit OH center dot production. The rate of benzoquinone oxidation was 2212 +/- 183 mu moles m(-2) min(-1) on the oxygenated electrode and 2926 +/- 201 mu moles m(-2) min(-1) on the fluorinated electrode. Density functional theory calculations indicated that the fluorination of the BDD surface by both F atoms and perfluorinated carbon radicals ((CnF2n+1)-C-center dot) of varying chain lengths (n=1 to 7) was feasible, and that the fluorinated edge sites (=C-CnF2n+1) were more electrochemically stable than fluorinated planar sites ( C-CnF2n+1). (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.