Local and regional effects of pedestrians on forest birds in a fragmented landscape

I assessed the effects of pedestrians on the distribution of forest bird species in wooded parks in the city of Madrid within and between fragments. Within fragments, increasing levels of pedestrians reduced species richness and overall abundance of individuals within circular plots. The abundance of foraging individuals of four species (Magpies Pica pica, Blackbirds Turdus merula, Starlings Sturnus unicolor, and Woodpigeon Columba palumbus) diminished when pedestrians walked near sampling plots, as well as their breeding densities in relation to increasing disturbance levels. Between fragments, after controlling for fragment size effects, pedestrian rate was negatively related to species richness in two breeding seasons. Species turnover was positively associated to mean pedestrian rate and inter-annual variability in pedestrian rate. At the species level, pedestrian rate negatively affected the probabilities of fragment occupation of 16 species beyond the effects of fragment size and isolation. Locally, the short-term behavioral responses to visitors may reduce the suitability of highly disturbed parks in such a way as to decrease breeding densities and the probabilities of fragment occupation and persistence. The effects of human disturbance in fragmented landscapes should be incorporated into management decisions as another relevant factor that may reduce habitat quality.