The Effect of Feminine and Masculine Gender Expression on Attribution of Traits Differentiate Humans from Animals and Robots

Do gender-related variables affect perceived humanness? To test the hypotheses derived from this research question, the study conducts two experiments using the three-way (2x2x2) between-subjects factorial design where the independent variables are gender (female name vs. male name), gender expression (feminine appearance vs. masculine appearance), and information about sexual orientation (name of the target person's partner; a male or female name). Perceived humanness was obtained by assessing the extent to which human nature vs. human uniqueness traits were attributed to the target person. A total of 131 participants (M-age = 20.05, SD = 2.12; 59 women, 72 men) were reached in the first experiment. The findings revealed the main effect of gender expression to be significant. Participants attributed human nature traits significantly more to the target person who had a feminine gender expression than a masculine one. In the second experiment, a total of 146 university students (M-age = 21.59, SD = 1.69; 105 women, 41 men) participated in the study. The results showed gender expression and information about sexual orientation to have significant main effects on human traits attribution. More human nature traits were attributed to the target person whose gender expression was depicted as feminine than masculine, as well as who is said to be more homosexual than heterosexual. In addition, the interaction effect between gender and gender expression was significant. Participants attributed more human uniqueness traits to the target person who was depicted as a masculine man (gender congruence) compared to a masculine woman (gender incongruence). Using pictures instead of vignettes in the second study revealed support for the hypotheses regarding the interaction effect of gender and gender expression as well as the effect of sexual orientation. All findings concur with the literature, which suggests that women are associated with nature and emotionality, whereas men are associated with culture and rationality. The most important contribution of this research is that gender expression as a variable is distinct from gender and sexual orientation. Gender expression occurs through one's physical appearance (e.g., haircut, outfit) and affects one's perceived humanness.