Social inclusion or social illusion: The challenges of social inclusion, social participation and social cohesion in Venezuelan S&T policy

This paper discusses the contribution that participatory approaches to science and technology (S&T) policy could make to enhancing inclusion and social cohesion. Public participation depends on the educational level of the population as well as on how well they can satisfy their basic needs. Consequently, based on its level of development, the nature of a country's S&T policy will vary. In developing countries the focus must be on how to make S&T help the excluded masses meet their basic needs, a goal that often requires mechanisms related to representative democracy. The case of Venezuela demonstrates popular input in policy decision-making that is ultimately reflected in the S&T policy. Nevertheless, implementation has fallen short due to institutional deficiencies and attempts at greater 'top-down' control.