A corpus study of child heritage speakers' Spanish gender agreement

Objectives: This study investigates (a) whether child heritage speakers produce more gender mismatches in Spanish (un piedra"a-masc. stone-fem.") than monolingual children, (b) whether older child heritage speakers mismatch more than younger ones, and (c) linguistic contexts in which mismatches occur. Methodology: 3893 agreement forms were extracted from corpora of Spanish spoken by six monolingual children, ages 5-6 years, and three groups of US child heritage speakers: ten 5-6-year-olds, fifteen 7-8-year-olds, and twenty-one 9-11-year-olds. Data and analysis: Logistic regressions measured the impact of agreement form type, noun gender, noncanonical noun ending, and noun frequency on gender matching. One regression included 5-6-year-olds only (monolingual and heritage); the second included child heritage speakers only (5-11-year-olds). Findings: There were no significant differences between monolingual and heritage 5-6-year-olds; for these children, adjectives, direct object clitics, noncanonical nouns, and feminine nouns increased the likelihood of mismatches. Among the 5-11-year-old heritage speakers, direct object clitics referring to feminine nouns and noncanonical nouns increased the likelihood of mismatches. The 9-11-year-olds produced more gender mismatches referring to feminine nouns than the younger child heritage speakers, especially with direct object clitics. Originality: This corpus study provides evidence for high rates of gender matching and clarifies the contexts that increase the likelihood that children will mismatch. Implications: Gender matching remains an intact part of child heritage speakers' Spanish grammars. The distribution of mismatches found provides evidence of a strong article-noun association and a weaker noun-direct object clitic association. The oldest child heritage speakers' use of masculine cliticloto refer to feminine nouns may reflect an association between English "it" and Spanishlo.More generally, the finding that mismatches tend to involve masculine forms referring to feminine nouns supports the idea that masculine is the default, unmarked form in Spanish.