Free and Unfree Labor in the Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Amazon

The nineteenth-century Brazilian Amazon was characterized by a wide variety of unfree labor performed by Indians, mesticos, free blacks, freedpersons, and slaves. Since the mid-eighteenth century, the Portuguese Crown's failure to promote the mass influx of enslaved Africans resulted in legislation that successively institutionalized and regularized coerced labor, limiting the mobility of individuals in the lower classes and obligating them to work against their will. Initially, this was restricted to Indians, but the measures were eventually applied to the entire free population of color. This article discusses the conditions under which these laws emerged and their impact on the living conditions of the population subject to them, placing the nineteenth-century Amazonian experience within wider historiographical debates about free and unfree labor.