Altruistic reciprocity. Theoretical considerations and experimental evidence

Altruistic reciprocity means the unconditional tendency of ego to return any experienced action, no matter if the receiver is the same person ego has received the action from or not. Altruistic reciprocity is one candidate for the explanation of cooperation in anonymous, complex societies. In order to fulfill this function, altruistic reciprocity must work also with costly actions that are not socially controlled and directed to an anonymous third party. However, the experimental evidence shows no altruistic reciprocity if it is costly and directed to a third party. It remains unclear if there is costly and directed altruistic reciprocity. Reciprocity as a catalyzer of cooperation seems to be restricted to two situations: 1) Situations with social control where reciprocity is operative by social norms and/or strategic considerations. 2) Anonymous situations where reciprocity is cost-free and directed to the donor. Therefore, reciprocity seems not suitable as a motivator for cooperation in real anonymous situations, e.g. in a second-order free-rider problem.