Diagnostic imaging of the lower respiratory tract in birds

Diseases of the lower respiratory tract are frequently diagnosed in birds and typically dyspnoea is a main clinical sign. Imaging technologies play an important role for diagnosis of respiratory tract diseases. A prerequisite for correct interpretation is a good knowledge of avian anatomy. Traditional methods such as radiography and endoscopy are still being used on a regular basis. Novel imaging techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are gaining increasing importance, as they are non-invasive and allow imaging without superposition of different organs. Computed tomography may even be performed on the awake bird. Nevertheless it must be acknowledged that computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging require significant equipment, hence resulting in higher costs. Ultrasound typically does not play an important role for diagnosis of lower respiratory tract disease, with the exception of ruling out coelomic masses, which may be linked to dyspnoea.