Strong relationships between urbanization, landscape structure, and ecosystem service multifunctionality in urban forest fragments

Urban forest fragments are highly multifunctional and provide many ecosystem services to people. However, the expansion and densification of cities is threatening this particular type of urban forest, resulting in further fragmentation, degradation and a change in forest function. Understanding how urbanization affects urban forests fragments and the multiple ecosystem services they provide is important for the creation of livable cities. We used an urban-to-rural gradient in Maple Ridge, Canada, to explore relationships between urban forest structure, urbanization, surrounding landscape structure, and the supply of eight different ecosystem services, including merchantable timber, carbon storage, flood control, food (berries), non-native shrub control, cultural use, and habitat provision. We found that the supply of multiple ecosystem services was higher at the rural end of our gradient and that forest fragments spaced closer together showed strong negative associations with most services. Crucially, forest fragment size had very weak effects on most services, emphasizing the importance of conserving small urban forest fragments with large trees. We also identified key tree genera, including Picea and Thuja, that could be retained or planted in urban forests to maximize individual services and multifunctionality. Our results highlight the potential for strategically managing urban landscapes to maintain forest fragments and enhance their ability to provide ecosystem services and multifunctionality. Our findings are relevant to inform urban conservation and greening strategies in cities around the world that are currently expanding into sur-rounding forests or losing greenspace through densification.