Austral summer Southern Africa precipitation extremes forced by the El Nino-Southern oscillation and the subtropical Indian Ocean dipole

Southern Africa, defined here as the African continent south of 15 degrees S latitude, is prone to seasonal precipitation extremes during December-March that have profound effects on large populations of people. The intensity of summertime precipitation extremes can be remarkable, with wet seasons experiencing up to a doubling of the seasonal average precipitation. Recognizing the importance of understanding the causes of Southern Africa precipitation extremes for the purpose of improved early warning, an 80-member ensemble of atmospheric model simulations forced by observed time-varying boundary conditions during 1979-2016 is used to examine the mechanisms by which December-March precipitation extremes are delivered to Southern Africa and whether the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole (SIOD) modify the probabilities of extreme seasonal precipitation occurrences. The model simulations reveal that the synchronous ENSO and SIOD phasing conditions the probability of December-March extreme precipitation occurrences. The probability of extreme wet seasons is greatly increased by La Nia, especially so when combined with a positive SIOD, and greatly decreased by El Nino regardless of SIOD phasing. By contrast, the probability of extreme dry seasons is increased by El Nino and is decreased by La Nia. The mechanisms by which extreme precipitation are delivered are the same regardless of ENSO and SIOD phase. Extreme wet seasons are a result of an anomalous lower tropospheric cyclone over Southern Africa that increases convergence and moisture fluxes into the region while extreme dry seasons are a result of an anomalous lower tropospheric anticyclone that decreases convergence and moisture fluxes into the region.