Investigating the impact of nicotine on executive functions using a novel virtual reality assessment

Aims Nicotine is known to enhance aspects of cognitive functioning in abstinent smokers, but the effects on specific areas of executive functions and in non-smokers are inconclusive. This may be due in part to the poor sensitivity of tests used to assess executive functions. This study used a new virtual reality assessment of executive functions known as JEF (the Jansari assessment of Executive Functions) to address this issue. Design A 2x2 design manipulating group (smokers and never-smokers) and drug [nicotine (4mg for smokers; 2mg for never smokers) versus placebo gum]. Setting School of Psychology; University of East London Participants Seventy-two participants (aged 1854 years): 36 minimally deprived (2 hours) smokers and 36 never-smokers. Measurements Components of executive function were measured using the virtual reality paradigm JEF, which assesses eight cognitive constructs simultaneously as well as providing an overall performance measure. Findings Univariate analyses of variance revealed that nicotine improved overall JEF performance, time-based prospective memory and event-based prospective memory in smokers (P<0.01), but not in never-smokers. Action-based prospective memory was enhanced in both groups (P<0.01) and never-smokers out-performed smokers on selective thinking and adaptive thinking (P<0.01). Conclusions Executive functioning and prospective memory as aspects of cognitive performance can be enhanced by nicotine gum in smokers who have abstained for as little as 2 hours.