Steering of citizenship education by the government? Between state pedagogy and personalistic pedagogy

Citizenship education in the Netherlands leaves much to be desired. The competences of students in secondary education lag behind those of peers in similar countries. We also see such differences between countries in citizenship education offered by schools. Dutch students indicate that schools pay relatively little attention to promoting citizenship, as do teachers and principals. This situation has been around for quite some time now. As a consequence of the general nature of the statutory obligation, it is unclear what is expected from schools. This calls for balance between school autonomy and steering in education. Three focal points are available to the government: the curriculum, the school as a training place and the context in which schools promote citizenship. In an education system characterized by autonomy, the government must steer in a way that is conceivable, visible and feasible. This requires clear goals, insight into outcomes and support for schools.