Using the radium quartet (228Ra, 226Ra, 224Ra, and 223Ra) to estimate water mixing and radium inputs in Loch Etive, Scotland

The radium (Ra) quartet (Ra-228, Ra-226, Ra-224, and Ra-223) has been investigated in Loch Etive, a Scottish fjord, to provide new constraints on water mixing rates and on the inputs of Ra from sediments. Maximum water transport rates for the inflowing estuarine layer at 5 m depth, determined from the excess Ra-223 (Ra-223(ex)), indicate that this water travels at no more than 2.4 +/- 0.2 cm s(-1) net and that it takes 17 +/- 2 d for waters to travel from the mouth to the head of the loch if no horizontal mixing is taken into account. Alternatively, neglecting advection, the short-lived Ra distribution could be explained by horizontal mixing rates of 6.1 x 10(6) cm(2) s(-1) (Ra-223(ex)) or 9.1 x 10(6) cm(2) s(-1) (Ra-224(ex)). Periodic overturning circulation plays an important role in resetting chemical cycles in the isolated deep basin of the inner loch. Sediment in this deep basin provides the major input of Ra-228 to the isolated deep water, and the accumulation of Ra-228 in deep waters allows an assessment of sedimentary fluxes of Ra-228, a poorly constrained aspect of the Ra-228 input to the global ocean. The calculated sedimentary Ra-228 flux of 2.1 +/- 0.2 (x 10(9)) atoms m(-2) yr(-1) in the inner deep basin is comparable with previous measurements of sedimentary Ra-228 inputs from shelf sediments, supporting existing global Ra-228 budgets, which are used to assess global rates of groundwater discharge to the ocean.