The environmental impacts of uranium mining and milling and the methods of their reduction

The review presents a short discussion of the principal adverse effects of uranium mining and milling on the environment: release of radionuclides and toxic elements with atmospheric and liquid effluents from uranium mines and mills, dispersion of radionuclides with and from solid wastes produced by uranium mining and milling, and contamination of ground waters from in situ leaching of uranium or from the seepage of contaminated waters into aquifers. The effects are illustrated by data on the release of individual contaminants, on the resulting concentrations of the contaminants in environmental media, and on the radiation rates due to the contamination. Remediation criteria and methods applicable for the reduction of the adverse effects are also discussed. Examples of limits on the release of radionuclides into the atmosphere and hydrosphere are given, as well as limits on the concentration of radionuclides in the atmosphere and soil. Methods of protection of the atmosphere and hydrosphere from contamination by uranium mining and milling are briefly outlined, together with methods for remediation of contaminated land surface.