Natural and anthropogenic biomarkers in recent dated sediment cores from Refome Lake, SE Nigeria: environmental implications

Natural and anthropogenic biomarkers characteristics of two recent sediment cores collected toward the shoreline and center of Refome Lake (RS and RC; 30 cm long), southeastern Nigeria, were investigated in order to reconstruct past environmental conditions and asses humans-induced changes on the local ecosystem over the last century. Results from sediment bulk properties such as total organic carbon (TOC; 0.12-0.54%; mean-0.26 +/- 0.9%), total nitrogen (TN; 0.01-0.05%; mean-0.03 +/- 0.7%) and total inorganic carbon (TIC; 0.03-0.37%; mean-0.14 +/- 1.0%) contents as well as TOC/TN (5-25; mean-11.55 +/- 1.4) suggested slightly higher contribution from allochthonous over autochthonous organic matter (OM), lowered by low primary production and the characteristic Niger Delta sheltered basin morphology predominated by sandy lithology. Evaluation of molecular proxies such as carbon preference index (CPI(C24-C35); 1.23-1.74: mean-1.58 +/- 0.4), carbon maxima (Cmax-17, 19, 26, 27, 29), long-chain/short-chain hydrocarbons (LHC/SH-C; 0.77-2.25, mean-1.52 +/- 0.3) and Paq, (0.21-0.61, mean-0.45 +/- 0.3) as well as C-29/C-27 (0.89-2.67; mean-1.53 +/- 0.2) indicated an admixture slightly predominated by microbial OM (algae/bacteria) in the most recent top layer (RC1, 0-5 cm) of RC core and slightly more enhanced terrestrially derived OM in the middle layer (RS4, 15-20 cm) of RS core. The later sediment layer deposited at ca. 1947-1964 coincided with the period of greater wash-in of land-derived OM (associated with tree logging/forest clearing for foot path extension and farmland preparation authorized by the European settlers) occasioned by intense rainfall. The occurrence of gammacerane and 18 alpha-oleanane in low levels in the lower and upper layers revealed trace contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons imported into the Nigerian economy prior to independence in 1960 and utilization of Niger Delta oil after 1960 following departure of the colonial masters (the British), respectively.