Occurrence, fate and risk assessment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Shaanxi, China

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered as major sinks for per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). However, conventional WWTPs with low efficiency are also a secondary point source of PFASs entering the environment. Herein, a large-scale investigation of PFASs was conducted in 44 WWTPs throughout Shaanxi Province in the transitional zone between North and South China. The composition profiles of target PFASs differed between wastewater and sludge samples. Perfluorobutanoic acid was dominant in wastewater influent and effluent samples, with maximum concentrations of 59.8 and 11.4 ng/L, respectively. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid occurred predominantly in sludge samples, with a maximum concentration of 73.2 ng/g. Through wastewater treatment, short-chain PFASs with an even number of carbon atoms were mostly removed, whereas short-chain PFASs with an odd number of carbon atoms were primarily discharged into receiving water. Long-chain PFASs (perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids: C >= 8; perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids: C >= 6) were not removed efficiently and secondary production might occur during treatment. Based on the risk quotient, PFASs residues in wastewater effluent posed minimal ecological risk, but the residues in sludge posed low to high potential risk. The mass loadings of PFASs discharged through wastewater and sludge were 15.5 and 3.74 kg/year, respectively, from all WWTPs in Shaanxi Province.