Climatic and landscape vulnerability of the eastern Hellbender salamander (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis)

Developing strategies to protect biodiversity is an overriding goal of conservation biology. Am-phibians represent a taxon under decline due to the collective impacts of anthropogenic land use, emerging pathogens, pollution, and climate change. One salamander species that is currently in decline throughout its range is the eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis). Population declines of this fully aquatic species are driven by a combination of anthropogenic stressors, yet, a landscape scale vulnerability analysis has not been conducted. We analyzed the spatially-explicit vulnerability of eastern Hellbenders as a combined measure of threats from current land use, future climate change, and paucity of formally protected habitat. Overall, we found that projected loss of climatic suitability and relative lack of habitats with formal protec-tion were the primary drivers of vulnerability. Of the ecoregions that accounted for greater than 1% of the predicted suitable habitat for the eastern Hellbender, the Northern Allegheny Plateau, Erie Drift Plains, Interior Plateau, and Interior River Valleys and Hills ecoregions were predicted as most vulnerable. As 35.6% of the total predicted suitable habitat for the eastern Hellbender occurs in these ecoregions, it is imperative that conservation efforts are implemented in these landscapes to reduce vulnerability. Establishment of permanent conservation areas, continued conservation and monitoring of currently protected habitats, increasing stream connectivity, and restoration of targeted stream ecosystems are the most attainable strategies to decrease vulner-ability for the eastern Hellbender.