Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa

A key goal of the Paris Agreement (PA) is to reach net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050 globally, which requires mitigation efforts from all countries. Africa's rapidly growing population and gross domestic product (GDP) make this continent important for GHG emission trends. In this paper, we study the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) in Africa over 3 decades (1990-2018). We compare bottom-up (BU) approaches, including United Nations Convention Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC) national inventories, FAO, PRIMAP-hist, process-based ecosystem models for CO 2 fluxes in the land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector and global atmospheric inversions. For inversions, we applied different methods to separate anthropogenic CH 4 emissions. The BU inventories show that, over the decade 2010-2018, fewer than 10 countries represented more than 75 % of African fossil CO 2 emissions. With a mean of 1373 Mt CO 2 yr - 1 , total African fossil CO 2 emissions over 2010-2018 represent only 4 % of global fossil emissions. However, these emissions grew by + 34 % from 1990-1999 to 2000-2009 and by + 31 % from 2000-2009 to 2010-2018, which represents more than a doubling in 30 years. This growth rate is more than 2 times faster than the global growth rate of fossil CO 2 emissions. The anthropogenic emissions of CH 4 grew by 5 % from 1990-1999 to 2000-2009 and by 14.8 % from 2000-2009 to 2010-2018. The N 2 O emissions grew by 19.5 % from 1990-1999 to 2000-2009 and by 20.8 % from 2000-2009 to 2010-2018. When using the mean of the estimates from UNFCCC reports (including the land use sector) with corrections from outliers, Africa was a mean source of greenhouse gases of 2622 2186 3239 Mt CO 2 eq. yr - 1 from all BU estimates (the subscript and superscript indicate min-max range uncertainties) and of + 2637 1761 5873 Mt CO 2 eq. yr - 1 from top-down (TD) methods during their overlap period from 2001 to 2017. Although the mean values are consistent, the range of TD estimates is larger than the one of the BU estimates, indicating that sparse atmospheric observations and transport model errors do not allow us to use inversions to reduce the uncertainty in BU estimates. The main source of uncertainty comes from CO 2 fluxes in the LULUCF sector, for which the spread across inversions is larger than 50 %, especially in central Africa. Moreover, estimates from national UNFCCC communications differ widely depending on whether the large sinks in a few countries are corrected to more plausible values using more recent national sources following the methodology of Grassi et al. (2022). The medians of CH 4 emissions from inversions based on satellite retrievals and surface station networks are consistent with each other within 2 % at the continental scale. The inversion ensemble also provides consistent estimates of anthropogenic CH 4 emissions with BU inventories such as PRIMAP-hist. For N 2 O, inversions systematically show higher emissions than inventories, on average about 4.5 times more than PRIMAP-hist, either because natural N 2 O sources cannot be separated accurately from anthropogenic ones in inversions or because BU estimates ignore indirect emissions and underestimate emission factors. Future improvements can be expected thanks to a denser network of monitoring atmospheric concentrations. This study helps to introduce methods to enhance the scope of use of various published datasets and allows us to compute budgets thanks to recombinations of those data products. Our results allow us to understand uncertainty and trends in emissions and removals in a region of the world where few observations exist and where most inventories are based on default IPCC guideline values. The results can therefore serve as a support tool for the Global Stocktake (GST) of the Paris Agreement. The referenced datasets related to the figures are available at 10.5281/zenodo.7347077 (Mostefaoui et al., 2022).