Measuring eco-efficiency of rice cropping systems in Iran: An integrated economic and environmental approach

This article provides detailed inventory data of existing cropping systems and measures the environmental burdens, economic performance, and eco-efficiency of rice production. Techno-economic analysis (TEA), life cycle assessment (LCA), and eco-efficiency are used as investigation methodologies. Direct field emission is the main environmental hotspot in most impact categories of rice cultivation. Increasing the eco-efficiency of rice production in each cropping system could be achieved by regulating the use of fuel, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides on the farm. Double culture shows better eco-efficiency over monoculture due to relatively higher economic performance and better environmental impacts per tonne of rice production. Ratoon emits fewer pollutants than second cultivation per hectare due to the usage of limited inputs and the absence of some stages of rice production. It leads to a higher eco-efficiency than second cultivation because the lower total costs offset the low yield of ratoon compared to second cultivation. According to this research, the "primary cultivation and ratoon" rice cropping system maximizes eco-efficiency. This conclusion should also apply to countries attempting to increase or achieve self-sufficiency in rice production.