Hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases

Decades of research have identified genetic factors and biochemical pathways involved in neurodegenera-tive diseases (NDDs). We present evidence for the following eight hallmarks of NDD: pathological protein ag-gregation, synaptic and neuronal network dysfunction, aberrant proteostasis, cytoskeletal abnormalities, altered energy homeostasis, DNA and RNA defects, inflammation, and neuronal cell death. We describe the hallmarks, their biomarkers, and their interactions as a framework to study NDDs using a holistic approach. The framework can serve as a basis for defining pathogenic mechanisms, categorizing different NDDs based on their primary hallmarks, stratifying patients within a specific NDD, and designing multi-tar-geted, personalized therapies to effectively halt NDDs.