Enhanced nitrate removal efficiency and microbial response of immobilized mixed aerobic denitrifying bacteria through biochar coupled with inorganic electron donors in oligotrophic water

The nitrogen removal characteristics and microbial response of biochar-immobilized mixed aerobic denitrifying bacteria (BIADB) were investigated at 25 degrees C and 10 degrees C. BIADB removed 53.51 +/- 1.72 % (25 degrees C) and 39.90 +/- 4.28 % (10 degrees C) nitrate in synthetic oligotrophic water. Even with practical oligotrophic water, BIADB still effectively removed 47.66-53.21 % (25 degrees C), and 39.26-45.63 % (10 degrees C) nitrate. The addition of inorganic electron donors increased nitrate removal by approximately 20 % for synthetic and practical water. Bacterial and functional communities exhibited significant temperature and stage differences (P < 0.05), with temperature and total dissolved nitrogen being the main environmental factors. The dominant genera and keystone taxa exhibited significant differences at the two temperatures. Structural equation model analysis showed that dissolved organic matter had the highest direct and indirect effects on diversity and function, respectively. This study provides an innovative pathway for utilizing biochar and inorganic electron donors for nitrate removal from oligotrophic waters.