Emoji meanings (pleasure-arousal-dominance dimensions) in consumer research: Between-country and interpersonal differences

In line with the increasing popularity of emoji, the need for methodological research into these pictorial representations of emotion remains. The present research contributes to this goal by continuing to establish the meaning of emoji and exploring these according to between-country and interpersonal differences. The emoji (n = 12) were selected to span the valence x arousal emotion space, and the PAD model (Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance) was used to establish emoji meaning for the three dimensions, operationalized as measurement on 6 x 3 semantic differentials. Participants in the main study came from three countries-Germany, Singapore, and Malaysia (n = 2465), and a supplementary study included the United Kingdom and New Zealand (n = 600) (subset of four emoji). The results confirmed that emoji meanings according to the PAD model were largely similar between countries (albeit not identical). There were multiple minor significant differences for individual emoji, and where these existed, they often related to the dimension of Arousal, prompting a need for further investigation. Interpersonal differences were examined for gender (men and women), age group (18-45 and 46-69 years old), and frequency of emoji use. Again, significant differences were smaller rather than larger and supported the notion that emoji are generally applicable for multicountry research. However, caution regarding the participants who use emoji infrequently may be warranted. Practical ApplicationThe findings from this research will help academics and practitioners who are interested in using emoji for sensory and consumer research (or are already doing so) with more robust interpretations of their findings. For a set of 12 emoji that provide broad coverage of the valence x arousal emotional space, meanings are provided on the three dimensions of the PAD model. The data is collected in five countries and contributes to increased confidence that emoji meanings are by and large similar in these countries.