Assessing spatiotemporal patterns of mesocarnivores along an urban-to-rural gradient

Rapid increases in human development and activity are affecting the spatial and temporal dynamics of mammalian mesocarnivore communities. We used 40 motion-sensitive cameras along an urban-to-rural gradient, and single-season occupancy models, to evaluate the habitat use of a local mesocarnivore guild (coyote [Canis latrans], bobcat [Lynx rufus], red fox [Vulpes vulpes], gray fox [Urocyon cinereoargenteus], and raccoon [Procyon lotor]) near Newburgh, New York, USA, during May-September 2021. Additionally, we fit circular kernel density estimations to assess how mesocarnivores may alter their diel and nocturnal activity patterns in response to human development. Red foxes were positively associated with urban areas and were also significantly more active at night in semiurban areas versus rural and urban locations. Coyotes demonstrated some adaptability to urban areas, being generally more nocturnal as urbanization increased but were also more likely to use higher elevation sites and areas with more natural habitat cover. We did not find support for a spatial shield hypothesis, as red foxes and raccoons were often detected in the same semiurban and urban sites as coyotes. Bobcats generally avoided human-dominated areas, whereas raccoons were ubiquitous throughout the gradient and exhibited similar daily and nocturnal activity levels in all land cover types. Overall, our results document how anthropogenic disturbance may alter mesocarnivore community structure and landscape use, providing information for managing urban carnivore populations and mitigating human-wildlife conflict, particularly at the local scale.