Mapping conduits in two-dimensional heterogeneous karst aquifers using hydraulic tomography

Hydraulic tomography (HT) is a well-established approach to yield the spatial distribution of hydraulic con-ductivity of an aquifer. This work explores the potential of HT for the characterization of the distribution and connectivity of conduits in a two-dimensional sandbox and its corresponding synthetic aquifer. Two inversion techniques were implemented and compared: the geostatistics-based inversion which uses the simultaneous successive linear estimator (SimSLE) algorithm to conduct stochastic inversions on the transient hydraulic heads, and the travel time-based inversion which employs the simultaneous iterative reconstruction technique (SIRT) algorithm on the hydraulic travel times for tomography reconstructions. Four artificial karst conduits of different geometries were placed in an aquifer of layer with different hydraulic conductivities. We conducted 6 pumping tests at 6 different locations, and the resultant pressure responses were recorded at 42 observation points in both the sandbox and the corresponding synthetic aquifer. The measured data were then used for the inversion of hydraulic diffusivity using the SimSLE and SIRT algorithms. Our results show that both algorithms were able to approximately identify the embedded karst conduits and yield similar hydraulic diffusivity distribution. Statis-tically, the travel time-based inversion re-constructed high-contrast diffusivities which clearly differentiate the karst structures from the surrounding matrix. The geostatistics-based SimSLE algorithm yields a better agreement on the positions and the shapes of the embedded karst structures, compared to those obtained by the travel time -based SIRT algorithm. Uncertainties and limitations of our results are also discussed in this work, followed by recommendations on hydraulic tests in karst aquifers.