Ectotherm heat tolerance and the microbiome: current understanding, future directions and potential applications

Climate change and increasing global temperatures are a leading threat to ectothermic animals worldwide. Ectotherm persistence under climate change will depend on a combination of host and environmental factors; recently it has become clear that hostassociated microbial communities contribute significantly to the response of ectotherms to environmental warming. However, several unanswered questions about these relationships remain before accurate predictions can be made regarding the microbiome's influence on host ecology and evolution under climate warming. In this Commentary, we provide a brief background of what is currently known about the influence of the microbiome on heat tolerance in both invertebrate and vertebrate ectothermic animals, and the mechanisms behind these effects. We then outline what we feel are important priorities for future work in the field, and how these goals could be accomplished. We specifically highlight a need for more diversity in study systems, especially through increasing representation of vertebrate hosts and hosts across a variety of life-history traits and habitats, as well as a greater understanding of how these relationships manifest in field settings. Lastly, we discuss the implications of microbiome-mediated heat tolerance for animal conservation under climate change and the possibility of 'bioaugmentation' approaches to bolster host heat tolerance in vulnerable populations.