Patterns of crystal organization and calcite twin formation in planktonic, rotaliid, foraminifera shells and spines

The foraminiferal order Rotaliida represents one third of the extant genera of foraminifers. The shells of these organisms are extensively used to decipher characteristics of marine ecosystems and global climate events. It was shown that shell calcite of benthic Rotaliida is twinned. We extend our previous work on microstructure and texture characterization of benthic Rotaliida and investigate shell calcite organization for planktonic rotaliid species. Based on results gained from electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) and field emission electron microscopy (FESEM) imaging of chemically etched/fixed shell surfaces we show for the planktonic species Globigerinoides sacculifer, Pulleniatina obliquiloculata, Orbulina universa (belonging to the two main planktonic, the globigerinid and globorotaliid, clades): very extensive 60 degrees-{00 1}-twinning of the calcite and describe a new and specific microstructure for the twinned crystals. We address twin and crystal morphology development from nucleation within a biopolymer template (POS) to outermost shell surfaces. We demonstrate that the calcite of the investigated planktonic Rotaliida forms through competitive growth. We complement the structural knowledge gained on the clade 1 and clade 2 species with EBSD results of Globigerinita glutinata and Candeina nitida shells (clade 3 planktonic species). The latter are significantly less twinned and have a different shell calcite microstructure. We demonstrate that the calcite of all rotaliid species is twinned, however, to different degrees. We discuss for the species of the three planktonic clades characteristics of the twinned calcite and of other systematic mis-orientations. We address the strong functionalization of foraminiferal calcite and indicate how the twinning affects biocalcite material properties.