Correlation between dietary theobromine intake and low cognitive performance in older adults in the United States: A cross-sectional study based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Background and Objectives: Few studies have investigated the effects of dietary theobromine intake on the cognitive performance of older adults. Therefore, we investigated these effects in older adults in the United States.Methods and Study Design: In this cross-sectional study, we used data (2011-2014) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Intake of theobromine intake was obtained through two 24-h dietary recall interviews and was adjusted by energy. Cognitive performance was assessed using the animal fluency test, Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease Word Learning subtest (CERAD), and Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). Logistic regression and restricted cubic spline models were constructed to evaluate the correlation between the dietary intake of theobromine from different sources and the likelihood of low cognitive performance.Results: The fully adjusted model revealed that compared with the lowest quintile, the odds ratios (with 95% confidence intervals) of cognitive performance in the CERAD test were 0.42 (0.28-0.64), 0.34 (0.14- 0.83), 0.25 (0.07-0.87), and 0.35 (0.13-0.95) for the highest quintile of total theobromine intake and that from between the likelihood of low cognitive performance and dietary theobromine (total intake and that from chocolate, coffee, and cream). An L-shaped relationship was observed between total theobromine intake and cognitive performance in the CERAD test.Conclusions: The dietary intakes of theobromine (total and that from chocolate, coffee, and cream) may protect older adults, particularly men, against low cognitive performance.