A mosaic pattern of apple orchards and farmland affects the distribution of soil water and nutrients in their adjacent areas on the Chinese Loess Plateau

With the vigorous promotion of apple tree planting on the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP), a mosaic pattern of apple orchards and traditional farmland has emerged in the region. However, the interaction between adjacent farmland and apple orchards in terms of soil water and nutrient migration remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the spatial distribution of the soil water content (SWC) and soil nutrients, as well as their interactions, in 0-10 m soil layers of apple orchards of different stand ages and adjacent farmland under the orchard-farmland land use pattern. The results revealed a significant decrease in average-depth SWC in the orchards in the 0-10 m soil profile (R-2 = 0.90) with increasing orchard age, accompanied by a significant increase in soil water deficit (SWD, R-2 = 0.94). The annual growth rate of SWD was found to be as high as 5.94 mm center dot m(-1)center dot y(-1). Deep soil and surrounding farmland were identified as important sources of soil water for apple tree growth, particularly in older orchards; a 25-year-old orchard absorbed approximately 10.8 % of soil water towards farmland with a horizontal distance of 7 m. The distribution of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) in the 0-10 m soil profile exhibited a similar pattern, decreasing and then stabilizing with increasing depth. However, the peak depth and accumulation of soil nitrate (NO3--N) significantly increased with orchard age. The migration and accumulation of NO3--N in the soil provided a scientific basis for the transport of soil water, with NO3--N accumulation (405.32 mg kg(-1)) observed in the deep soil (3-6 m) of farmland located 5 m away from a 30-year-old orchard, confirming the exchange of soil water and nutrients between the orchard and the farmland. The stand age of the orchards was identified as the main environmental factor influencing soil water transport under the orchard-farmland land use pattern. Overall, our findings provide valuable insights into the interaction between apple orchards and farmland under the mosaic pattern, which can contribute to a more rational layout of apple orchards and farmland in the future, promoting the efficient utilization of soil water and nutrients on the CLP.