An open air research study of blast-induced traumatic brain injury to goats

<italic>Purpose:</italic> We once reported blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) in confined space. Here, bTBI was studied again on goats in the open air using 3.0 kg trinitrotoluene. <italic>Methods:</italic> The goats were placed at 2, 4, 6 and 8 m far from explosion center. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) was used as the source of the blast wave and the pressure at each distance was recorded. The systemic physiology, electroencephalogram, serum level of S-100beta, and neuron specific enolase (NSE) were determined pre and post the exposure. Neuroanatomy and neuropathology were observed 4 h after the exposure. <italic>Results:</italic> Simple blast waveforms were recorded with parameters of 702.8 kPa-0.442 ms, 148.4 kPa-2.503 ms, 73.9 kPa-3.233 ms, and 41.9 kPa-5.898 ms at 2, 4, 6 and 8 m respectively. Encephalic blast overpressure was on the first time recorded in the literature by us at 104.2 kPa-0.60 ms at 2 m, where mortality and burn rate were 44% and 44%. Gross examination showed that bTBI was mainly manifested as congestive expansion of blood vessels and subarachnoid hemorrhage, which had a total incidence of 25% and 19% in 36 goats. Microscopical observation found that the main pathohistological changes were enlarged perivascular space (21/36, 58%), small hemorrhages (9/36, 25%), vascular dilatation and congestion (8/36, 22%), and less subarachnoid hemorrhage (2/36, 6%). After explosion, serum levels of S-100β and NSE were elevated, and EEG changed into slow frequency with declined amplitude. The results indicated that severity and incidence of bTBI is related to the intensity of blast overpressure. <italic>Conclusion:</italic> Blast wave can pass through the skull to directly injure brain tissue.