Human and carnivore behaviour in view of zooarchaeology and taphonomy at Orce (Guadix Baza, Orce, Spain) during the late Early Pleistocene

Since the discovery of Venta Micena in 1976 until now, the Orce archaeopalaeontological sites (Guadix Baza basin) in the northern part of Granada have contributed significantly to the body of knowledge on Early Pleistocene ecosystem dynamics. The exceptional fossil accumulation at Venta Micena stands out, housing important examples of early Pleistocene European faunas. Additionally, the discovery of new sites such as Barranco Leon and Fuente Nueva 3 has yielded evidence of some of the oldest human presence in western Eurasia, alongside bones bearing cut and percussion marks made by stone tools. These discoveries were made by using novel techniques and methodology, allowing for new interpretations of the fossil record. Integration of artificial intelligence and geometric morphometrics applied to fossil studies contributed to better understanding of the genesis of the sites, and to unravelling the role of humans and other mammals in creating fossil accumulations at the Orce sites. At Barranco Le & oacute;n, Canis mosbachensis was found to be the most active carnivore and not, as earlier thought, the large hyaena Pachycrocuta brevirostris. At Fuente Nueva 3, large saber-toothed cats seem to be the top consumers of carcasses. This evidence suggests the existence of more complex associations between humans and various carnivorous taxa.