Working Toward an Environmental Risk Assessment of Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: the Case of Amoxicillin

Amoxicillin is considered the most widely used antibiotic and has been cataloged among the drugs under surveillance. In the current work, we aimed to review the detection methods, presence, and concentrations of amoxicillin in wastewater from different countries. Additionally, we aimed to examine the methods currently employed for removing amoxicillin and recognized the advantages of advanced technologies that can increase removal efficiency. Finally, the manner in which amoxicillin enters the environment and associated effects are discussed. The results revealed that amoxicillin concentrations can be up to 1,172,000 ng/L in hospital wastewater, whereas its concentration in urban wastewater ranges from 66–5,230 ng/L, with the maximum acceptable limits being 78 ng/L for this antibiotic under European regulations. Advanced oxidation processes are highly efficient for amoxicillin removal, with removal percentages between 90 and 100%, but the efficiency of treatment processes may decrease when real wastewater rather than simulated wastewater is used due to the presence of organic matter in real wastewater. In addition, conventional processes that play crucial roles in wastewater treatment plants are unlikely to thoroughly remove amoxicillin from wastewater. Every method has benefits and drawbacks in terms of time, toxic byproduct formation, cost and maintenance requirements.