Effects of wind farms on raptors: A systematic review of the current knowledge and the potential solutions to mitigate negative impacts

Wind farms are a clean and efficient source of renewable energy. However, they cause negative impacts on raptors. Here, we present a review of the existing scientific literature on the effects of wind farms on raptors' ecology with a particular interest in the potential solutions. After collecting 216 studies, we found a consensus in the literature that raptors exhibit avoidance behaviors, and that the abundance of raptors decreases after wind farm installation, although it might recover over time. The position of wind farms on mountaintop ridges poses a particular danger to large soaring raptors, as they rely on orographic uplift to gain altitude. Adult mortality significantly affects population dynamics, particularly in endangered species, but young inexperienced individuals show a higher collision risk. The combination of different methods including field monitoring, GPS telemetry and systematic search for carcasses is an adequate approach to further investigate the problem and solutions. Shutdowns on demand, the installation of deterrents, turbine micro-sitting and the repowering of wind farms have been suggested as potential solutions, although results are contradictory and case-specific. Furthermore, it is essential to report the potential occurrence of conflicts of interest in scientific papers, as they can influence the interpretation of the results. Finally, from a future perspective, it is crucial to assess the effectiveness of solutions to mitigate the negative effects of wind farms to promote raptor conservation. This becomes increasingly relevant in the context of renewable energy development and increasing energy demand worldwide. Our review of 195 studies highlights the consensus on raptors' avoidance behavior and population decline post-wind farm installation, emphasizing the significant risks posed by mountaintop wind farms to soaring raptors. Adult raptor mortality, particularly among endangered species, and the elevated collision risks faced by young individuals underscore the urgent need for effective mitigation strategies, such as shutdowns on demand and turbine micro-siting, while ensuring transparency in scientific reporting.image