Transcriptional responses of detoxification genes to coumaphos in a nontarget species, Galleria mellonella (greater wax moth) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), in the beehive environment

The greater wax moth Galleria mellonella is a cosmopolitan pest of hives of the western honey bee Apis mellifera, where it remains exposed to varroicides applied by beekeepers in past decades as pest management chemicals for control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite of bees. The prolonged presence of coumaphos residues, an organophosphate varroicide, in beeswax may be responsible for current levels of tolerance exhibited by G. mellonella, a non-target species that infests beehives. In this study, a field-collected strain of waxworms exhibited a higher LC50 value for coumaphos than that of a laboratory strain that had not been continuously exposed to coumaphos residues at field concentrations. Despite its higher tolerance for coumaphos, the field strain experienced growth inhibition at ecologically relevant concentration of coumaphos. Moreover, at low environmental concentrations that did not alter growth, detoxification gene expression levels were substantially altered. RNA-Seq analysis revealed 1181 and 658 differentially expressed genes in fat body and midgut, respectively, with 378 and 186 of those genes upregulated. This large-scale upregulation encompassed 21 genes encoding cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs), 13 encoding UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs), 5 encoding glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), 2 encoding carboxylesterases (COEs), and 2 encoding ABC transporters (ABCs) in either tissue. Expression analysis of 13 selected candidate detoxification genes by RT-qPCR was consistent with their expression from RNA-Seq data. In sum, our results indicate that long-lasting pesticide residues in beeswax from past Varroa mite management may continue to act as selective agents on detoxification systems of hive residents other than the initial target species and that multiple resistance mechanisms to these chemicals may coexist within the beehive fauna.