Why do famines still occur in the 21st Century? A review on the causes of extreme food insecurity

Why do famines persist in the 21st century, despite significant advances in agricultural productivity? Throughout human history, famines have been - and continue to be - among the harshest manifestations of destitution. They result from the exacerbation of human vulnerabilities caused by the synergistic interaction of multiple anthropogenic and natural determinants. Famines are humanitarian emergencies that sharply increase mortality and/or morbidity among destitute families. This article reviews the academic debate on the causes of famines. The literature is organized into six main "families" of theories: (i) classical economic explanations (Smith's and Malthus' theses); (ii) food availability decline approach; (iii) entitlement approach; (iv) political perspectives (political regime and political accountability approaches); (v) new variant famine hypothesis; and (vi) systemic explanations. The article identifies the main gaps and limitations in this literature and highlights relevant development policy implications for reducing extreme food insecurity. The conclusion drawn is that the persistence of famines is attributable to ongoing mismanagement of significant triggers of extreme human vulnerability, both at the national and international levels. Extreme poverty, violent conflicts, economic shocks, climate change, governmental negligence, famine crimes, and pandemics contribute to the complexity of famine and require a comprehensive development strategy.