Nanoscale Stolephorus sp. powder fabrication using high-energy milling for bioactive materials in dentistry

Background. The application of natural products in dentistry has been widely explored. Anchovy ( Stolephorus in Latin) has been examined for its bioactive content (calcium, phosphorus and fluoride) as an agent for bone stimulation and tooth development, topical fluoridation and pulp capping. Ball milling has been used to prepare calcium oxide nanoparticles from snakehead fish bone. Objectives. The aim of the study was to reduce the particle size of Stolephorus sp. powder to the nanoscale using high-energy ball milling for 8, 12 and 24 h, and to analyze the optimal milling time by comparing the powder characteristics. Material and methods. The Stolephorus sp. were oven-dried at 50 degrees C for 6 h, after which the entire fish were crushed into powder. The fish powder was produced by blending the material for 5 min and passing it through a 200-mesh sieve. The remaining dried fish was blended again for 5 min until it passed through the sieve. The top-down approach to the particle size reduction was performed using high-energy milling at 3 distinct time points (8, 12 and 24 h). The characteristics of the powder were evaluated using a particle size analyzer, a Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Results.The The Stolephorus sp. powder contained 64.50% protein, 7,420 mg/kg sodium, 28,912 mg/kg calcium, and 1,924 mg/kg magnesium. The high-energy milling process resulted in a reduction of the particle size from the microscale to the nanoscale. The analysis of the average particle size and polydispersity index indicated that 24 h of milling showed the most optimal results. Furthermore, the functional groups exhibited no significant alteration at 3 milling times (p p >= 0.05, FTIR analysis). Conclusions. The high-energy milling method has the potential to reduce the particle size of Stolephorus sp. powder to the nanoscale at the 8- and 24-h milling periods. The powder resulting from the 24-h milling process had a size of 789.3 +/- 170.7 nm, smooth size distribution, good size uniformity, a polydispersity index of 0.763, no significant change in organic and inorganic compound content, and a calcium/phosphorus ratio that was the closest to that of hydroxyapatite (HAp).