Sustainable soil rehabilitation with multiple network structures of layered double hydroxide beads: Immobilization of heavy metals, fertilizer release, and water retention

The remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils necessitated a holistic approach that encompassed water and fertilizer conservation alongside soil property restoration. This study introduced the synthesis of (poly)acrylamide-layered double hydroxide gel spheres (PAM-LDH beads), which were designed to simultaneously immobilize heavy metals, control the release of fertilizers, and enhance soil water retention. Laboratory soil experiments under diverse conditions highlighted the superior performance of PAM-LDH beads in the immobilization of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)). The layered double hydroxide (LDH) component was identified as the key player in Cr(VI) immobilization, with anion exchange being the predominant mechanism. Notably, the encapsulated urea within the beads was released independently of environmental influences, governed by a concentration gradient across the beads surface. This release process was characterized by an initial phase of absorptive swelling followed by a diffusive phase. The impact on plant growth was assessed, revealing that PAM LDH beads significantly curtailed Cr(VI) accumulation and alleviated its phytotoxic effects. Changes in the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content of the plants suggested that the urea encapsulated within the beads served as a nutrient source, contributing to soil fertility. Moreover, the water-holding capacity and soil-water characteristic curves of PAM-LDH beads suggested that these superabsorbent beads could delay soil water evaporation. The observed shifts in microbial community structure provided evidence for the enhancement of soil carbon and nitrogen cycles, indicative of improved soil properties.