Dynamic acceleration of energetic protons by an interplanetary collisionless shock

Context. Interplanetary collisionless shocks are known to be capable of accelerating charged particles up to hundreds of MeV. However, the underlying acceleration mechanisms are still under debate. Aims. We present the dynamic behaviors of energetic protons that are accelerated by an interplanetary shock that was observed with unprecedented high-resolution measurements by the Electron-Proton Telescope sensor of the Energetic Particle Detector suite on board the Solar Orbiter spacecraft on 2021 November 3. We constrain the potential acceleration mechanisms and processes. Methods. We first reconstructed the proton pitch-angle distributions (PADs) in the solar wind frame. Then, we examined the temporal flux profile, PAD, and the velocity distribution function of energetic protons close to the shock, and we qualitatively compared the observations with theoretical predictions. Moreover, we applied a velocity dispersion analysis (VDA) to an observed velocity dispersion event and derived the proton path length and release time at the shock. Then, we tested this derivation by comparing it with the shock motion and the magnetic field configuration. Results. We find that similar to 1000-4000 keV protons exhibit a rapid-rise, rapid-decay temporal flux profile with a clear velocity dispersion similar to 2 min before the shock, similar to impulsive solar energetic particle events. The proton path length based on the VDA of this event is consistent with the length derived from the shock motion and magnetic field configuration. The peak spectrum in this event appears to be steeper than the spectrum at the shock. Furthermore, we find that similar to 50-200 keV proton fluxes peak between similar to 10 and similar to 20 s before the shock, with an inverse velocity dispersion. The velocity dispersion event and the inverse velocity dispersion event are both accompanied by magnetic kinks or switchbacks. In addition, two distinct proton populations appear near the shock. The first population at energies below similar to 300 keV is characterized by a power-law spectrum with an index of similar to 6-7 and a flux profile that increases before and decreases after the shock. The other population at energies above similar to 300 keV shows a long-lasting, anti-sunward-beamed PAD across the shock and a flux profile that remains relatively constant before and increases slightly after the shock. Conclusions. These results suggest that the shock acceleration of energetic protons is highly dynamic due to temporal and/or spatial variations at the shock front. The observation of the velocity dispersion event further suggests that shock acceleration can be impulsive and efficient, which may be due to the interaction between the shock and magnetic kinks or switchbacks. Moreover, these results may support shock-drift acceleration and diffusive shock acceleration as candidate acceleration mechanisms at interplanetary shocks.