Enhancing vulnerability assessment through spatially explicit modeling of mountain social-ecological systems exposed to multiple environmental hazards

The evaluation of the vulnerability of coupled socio-ecological systems is critical for addressing and preventing the adverse impacts of various environmental hazards and devising strategies for climate change adaptation. The initial step in vulnerability assessment involves exposure assessment, which entails quantifying and mapping the risks posed by multiple environmental hazards, thereby offering valuable insights for the implementation of vulnerability assessment methodologies. Consequently, this study sought to model the exposure of coupled social -ecological systems in mountainous regions to various environmental hazards. By a set of socio-economic, climatic, geospatial, hydrological, and demographic data, as well as satellite imagery, and examining 11 hazards, including droughts, pests, dust storms, winds, extreme temperatures, evapotranspiration, landslides, floods, wildfires, and social vulnerability, this research employed machine learning (ML) techniques and the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP). Expert opinions were utilized to guide hazard weighting and calculate the exposure index (EI). Through the precise spatial mapping of EI variations across the socio-ecological systems in mountainous areas, this investigation provides insights into vulnerability to multiple environmental hazards, thereby laying the groundwork for future endeavors in supporting national -level vulnerability assessments aimed at fostering sustainable environments. The findings reveal that social vulnerability and pests receive the highest weighting, while floods and landslides are ranked lower. All hazards demonstrate significant correlations with the EI, with droughts exhibiting the strongest correlation (r > 0.81). Spatial analysis indicates a north -south gradient in forest exposure, with southern regions showing higher exposure hotspots (EI 29.08) compared to northern areas (EI 10.60). Validation based on Area Under Curve (AUC) and Consistency Rate (CR) in FAHP demonstrates robustness, with AUC values exceeding 0.78 and CR values below 0.1. Considering the anticipated intensification of hazards, management strategies should prioritize reducing social vulnerability, restore degraded areas using drought -resistant species, combat pests, and mitigate desertification. By integrating multidisciplinary data and expert opinions, this research contributes to informed decision -making regarding sustainable forest management and climate resilience in mountain ecosystems.