Batteries for Large-Scale Stationary Electrical Energy Storage

Large-scale stationary battery energy storage technologies continue to be developed with the successful use of pumped hydroelectric storage as a model. Several large battery demonstration projects have been built and tested under a variety of electric utility grid applications. Technologies that are used in fielded systems include leadacid, nickel/cadmium, sodium/sulfur, and vanadium-redox flow batteries. Cost effective energy storage systems have been identified for utility, end-user, and renewable applications. Rechargeable high-temperature battery technologies that utilize metallic sodium offer attractive solutions for many largescale, electric utility energy storage applications. Candidate uses include load-leveling, power quality and peak shaving, along with renewable energy management and integration. A number of sodium-based battery options have also been proposed to meet these requirements.